Locations:
Search IconSearch
January 26, 2024/Pulmonary/Research

Portopulmonary Hypertension: A Focused Review for the Internist

Insights for diagnosing, assessing and treating

24-PUL-4507382-CQD-Portopulmonary-Hypertension-Hero-967×544

Written by Mamta S. Chhabria, MD, Leela Krishna Teja Boppana, MD, Gaurav Manek, MD and Adriano R. Tonelli, MD, MSc

Advertisement

Cleveland Clinic is a non-profit academic medical center. Advertising on our site helps support our mission. We do not endorse non-Cleveland Clinic products or services. Policy

Note: This article is reprinted from the Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine (2023;90[10]:632-639)

For reasons that are not entirely clear, some patients who have portal hypertension go on to also have pulmonary arterial hypertension, a grim but fortunately rare combination called portopulmonary hypertension.1 Portopulmonary hypertension is important to recognize, both because it has a poor prognosis and because it can affect a patient’s eligibility for liver transplant.

This article reviews the key aspects of screening, diagnosis and treatment of patients with portopulmonary hypertension and highlights the various pulmonary hemodynamic patterns encountered in patients with liver disease.

Portal and pulmonary hypertension

Portal hypertension is characterized by a high-pressure gradient (> 5 mm Hg) between the portal venous system and the hepatic veins.2

It is usually caused by liver cirrhosis, although noncirrhotic causes such as congenital hepatic fibrosis, sarcoidosis and schistosomiasis are occasionally seen. It can be recognized clinically by its classic signs and sequelae such as gastroesophageal varices, portal hypertensive intestinal vasculopathies, ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, hepatic hydrothorax and hepatorenal syndrome.

3 

Pulmonary arterial hypertension has a specific hemodynamic profile called precapillary pulmonary hypertension, defined by the following:

4 
  • Mean pulmonary artery pressure greater than 20 mm Hg
  • Pulmonary artery wedge pressure 15 mm Hg or less
  • Pulmonary vascular resistance at least 3 Wood units (WU); in 2022, the European Society of Cardiology and the European Respiratory Society5 lowered this to greater than 2 WU, but the clinical implications of this change in portopulmonary hypertension remain unclear.

Portopulmonary hypertension is uncommon

The exact prevalence of portopulmonary hypertension in the United States is difficult to determine, but it is not common.6-8 McDonnell et al9 reported that patients with hepatic cirrhosis had a prevalence of pulmonary arterial hypertension of 0.73%. In the United States and Europe, the prevalence of pulmonary arterial hypertension ranges from 15 to 50 per million, with portopulmonary hypertension accounting for 5% to 15% of cases.10 In a prospective study of 1,235 patients undergoing liver transplant in the United States, approximately 5% met the criteria for portopulmonary hypertension.11

Advertisement

The incidence of portopulmonary hypertension will likely increase as our population ages and as the prevalence of cirrhosis increases. In North America, the prevalence of cirrhosis has increased 1.5-fold to 2-fold over the past 2 decades.12

Mechanisms proposed

The pathophysiology of portopulmonary hypertension remains unclear but may involve several factors, including the following:

Genetic predisposition. Several genetic variants are thought to play a role, including single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the genes coding for estrogen receptor 1, aromatase, phosphodiesterase 5, angiopoietin 1 and calcium-binding protein A4.13,14

Hyperdynamic circulation. Patients with chronic liver disease and cirrhosis have high cardiac output and low systemic vascular resistance. This hyperdynamic circulatory state may contribute to higher pulmonary vascular shear stress (frictional force of blood flow on the endothelium),15 which may injure endothelial cells and activate genes that participate in vascular remodeling.

Inflammation. Bacteria can enter the portal circulation through disruptions in the intestinal barrier. Bacterial lipopolysaccharides can activate Toll-like receptors on immune cells, causing them to release inflammatory cytokines such as interferon gamma and interleukin 6, which have been implicated in the pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial hypertension.15,16

Imbalance of vasoconstrictive and vasodilatory mediators. Portosystemic shunts develop as a result of portal hypertension.17 These shunts may allow vasoactive substances in the blood to evade hepatic metabolism and enter the pulmonary circulation, causing vasoconstriction and endothelial remodeling.15 In addition, levels of specific mediators such as bone morphogenetic proteins 9 and 10, which are responsible for maintaining vascular quiescence, have been found to be lower in patients with portopulmonary hypertension than in healthy controls.18,19

Advertisement

When to suspect portopulmonary hypertension

Table 1

Table 1

In general, portal hypertension precedes the development of portopulmonary hypertension by several years.20 Suspect portopulmonary hypertension in patients with portal hypertension and chronic liver disease who have dyspnea on exertion, chest pain or exertional syncope or near-syncope (Table 1). Patients may also present with signs suggesting right heart failure such as jugular venous distention, edema, ascites, a second heart sound that is wide and split, and a murmur of tricuspid regurgitation.21

Screen with transthoracic echocardiography

Patients with portal hypertension, particularly those being evaluated for liver transplant, should be screened for portopulmonary hypertension with transthoracic echocardiography.5 The right ventricular systolic pressure as estimated by echocardiography can differ widely from that measured directly by right heart catheterization.11 Patients awaiting liver transplant should be screened for portopulmonary hypertension with echocardiography at least annually, although the optimal interval is unknown.5

Distinct hemodynamic patterns in liver disease

In patients with liver disease, three hemodynamic abnormalities can exist alone or in combination, and some patients have all three (Table 2)1:

  • Hyperdynamic circulation due to splanchnic vasodilation and low systemic vascular resistance
  • Volume overload from secondary hyperaldosteronism
  • Portopulmonary hypertension due to increased pulmonary vascular resistance

Right heart catheterization is essential for identifying the predominant hemodynamic pattern.

Table 2

Table 2

Caveats

Although a hyperdynamic state is inherent in liver disease, it can also be caused or exacerbated by conditions such as anemia, obesity, thiamine deficiency, systemic arteriovenous shunts and hyperthyroidism.22 Similarly, a volume overload state can be present in patients with concomitant renal disease or left heart failure (systolic or diastolic, or both). And precapillary pulmonary hypertension, suggestive of portopulmonary hypertension, can also be seen in patients with scleroderma, congenital heart disease, drug or toxin exposure, lung diseases, hypoxia, chronic thromboembolic disease and sarcoidosis.5

Advertisement

Implications for liver transplant

Patients with hyperdynamic circulation and volume overload can undergo liver transplant without pulmonary hypertension therapies. However, liver transplant is contraindicated in patients with portopulmonary hypertension who have persistently elevated pulmonary vascular resistance despite pulmonary hypertension treatment. In 2021, the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network modified its criteria and now allows liver transplants for patients with portopulmonary hypertension with either of the following two hemodynamic patterns after treatment:

  • Mean pulmonary artery pressure less than 35 mm Hg and pulmonary vascular resistance less than 5 WU
  • Mean pulmonary artery pressure 35 mm Hg to 44 mm Hg and pulmonary vascular resistance less than 3 WU23

Although the 2019 World Symposium on Pulmonary Hypertension decreased the mean pulmonary arterial pressure threshold for the diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension from 25 mm Hg or higher to higher than 20 mm Hg,4 and the 2023 guidelines lowered the pulmonary vascular resistance threshold from three or more WU to more than 2 WU,5 inclusion criteria in studies of portopulmonary hypertension were based on the older definitions.24 The current hemodynamic criteria for portopulmonary hypertension remain the following:

  • Mean pulmonary artery pressure greater than 20 mm Hg
  • Pulmonary artery wedge pressure 15 mm Hg or lower
  • Pulmonary vascular resistance 3 WU or greater

Management

Important goals of therapy include symptom relief and improvements in functional capacity and quality of life. General management includes supplemental oxygen for hypoxemia (resting, exercise-induced, or nocturnal), diuretics for fluid overload and an exercise program. Specific treatment includes pulmonary vasodilator therapy and, ideally, liver transplant once the pulmonary hemodynamic profile is optimized.25

Advertisement

Medications for pulmonary arterial hypertension

Medications specifically for pulmonary arterial hypertension help reduce pulmonary vascular resistance while improving right ventricular function.

Importantly, these medications reduce pulmonary vascular resistance more than they decrease the mean pulmonary artery pressure because they also increase cardiac output, which can partially offset the expected improvement in mean pulmonary artery pressure.26 In the Portopulmonary Hypertension Treatment With Macitentan—a Randomized Clinical Trial (PORTICO),27 patients treated with macitentan had a decrease in pulmonary vascular resistance of 37% at 12 weeks, while the mean pulmonary artery pressure dropped 14% and the cardiac index increased 19%.

A unique role of pulmonary arterial hypertension therapies in patients with portopulmonary hypertension is to facilitate liver transplant. A meta-analysis of 26 observational and case-controlled studies in 1,019 patients showed that pulmonary hypertension therapies in patients with portopulmonary hypertension improved their pulmonary hemodynamic numbers, and more importantly, 44% became eligible for liver transplant.28

Endothelin Pathway, Nitric Oxide pathway, Prostacyclin pathway

Figure 1

Current drugs for pulmonary arterial hypertension belong to several classes (Figure 1)25,29:

  • Prostacyclin agonists: treprostinil and epoprostenol
  • Prostacyclin receptor agonist: selexipag
  • Endothelin receptor antagonists: bosentan, ambrisentan and macitentan
  • Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors: sildenafil and tadalafil
  • Guanylyl cyclase stimulants: riociguat

All the above PAH-specific drugs are metabolized in the liver, except for epoprostenol, which is rapidly hydrolyzed in blood. Individual medications in these classes have different dosing requirements in patients with cirrhosis. A detailed description of their use in the context of liver cirrhosis was previously published by our group.25

Calcium channel blockers are generally not used in patients with portopulmonary hypertension because they can worsen hypotension and exacerbate portal hypertension.30

Table 3

Table 3

In case reports and small case series, patients with portopulmonary hypertension showed improvements in their pulmonary hemodynamics with pulmonary hypertension therapies. A prospective cohort study examined 637 patients with portopulmonary hypertension, of whom 90% were treated with pulmonary arterial hypertension-specific therapies (74% received monotherapy), resulting in significant improvement in functional class and hemodynamic parameters. Notably, 63 patients underwent liver transplant, of whom 60 (95%) were on pulmonary hypertension therapies as a bridge to transplant.31 Furthermore, a retrospective study of 21 patients with portopulmonary hypertension showed that early initiation of parenteral epoprostenol therapy allowed 52% of them to become eligible for liver transplant within one year.32

Unfortunately, the side effects of pulmonary arterial hypertension-specific therapies often overlap with signs and symptoms of liver disease such as nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and edema, limiting the aggressiveness of this treatment.25

Only a few studies have tested the impact of pulmonary arterial hypertension therapies in patients with portopulmonary hypertension (Table 3).27,33-36 At the time of this writing, only one randomized controlled trial in portopulmonary hypertension (PORTICO)27 has compared a pulmonary arterial hypertension therapy (macitentan) and placebo. The Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Soluble Guanylate Cyclase–Stimulator Trial 133 randomized patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension to riociguat vs placebo and included a subgroup of patients with portopulmonary hypertension.33-35 In addition, there is an open-label observational trial in portopulmonary hypertension using ambrisentan.36 In general, patients with portopulmonary hypertension are excluded from trials in pulmonary arterial hypertension owing to hepatic safety concerns and unpredictable blood levels of medications in the context of chronic liver failure.

Patients with suspected or known portopulmonary hypertension should be referred to a pulmonary hypertension center of excellence with multidisciplinary care, as their care is complex. The medications are poorly tolerated and need frequent changes in type and dosage, and patients need serial evaluations and treatment optimizations to achieve or maintain eligibility for liver transplant.

Portopulmonary hypertension has a poor prognosis

The five-year mortality rate exceeds 60% even with treatment,37 and many patients die of complications of their liver disease.38 In the Registry to Evaluate Early and Long-term Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Disease Management, patients with portopulmonary hypertension had lower survival rates than those with idiopathic or familial pulmonary arterial hypertension (67% vs 85% at two years, and 40% vs 64% at five years).39

In a multivariable model of portopulmonary hypertension in patients from our institution, the Model for End-stage Liver Disease-Na score, resting heart rate and hepatic encephalopathy were independent predictors of death, while the severity of portopulmonary hypertension did not predict pretransplant mortality risk.37 Similarly, other investigators showed that severity of cirrhosis negatively affected outcomes,40 and that the prognosis for patients with portopulmonary hypertension prognosis is poor if they do not receive a liver transplant, despite the use of therapies for pulmonary arterial hypertension.41 Patients with portopulmonary hypertension do better after liver transplant, with improvement in hemodynamics and decreased need for pulmonary vasodilators.42 Therefore, efforts should focus on facilitating liver transplant whenever possible.25,36

It is essential to differentiate portopulmonary hypertension from other types of pulmonary hypertension, as postcapillary pulmonary hypertension does not appear to have a negative impact on survival after liver transplant.43

REFERENCES

  1. Krowka MJ. Portopulmonary hypertension. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 33(1):17–25. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1301731
  2. Bosch J. Portal hypertension and cirrhosis: from evolving concepts to better therapies. Clin Liver Dis (Hoboken) 2020; 15(suppl 1):S8–S12. doi:10.1002/cld.844
  3. Al-Busafi SA, McNabb-Baltar J, Farag A, Hilzenrat N. Clinical manifestations of portal hypertension. Int J Hepatol 2012; 2012:203794. doi:10.1155/2012/2037944
  4. Simonneau G, Montani D, Celermajer DS, et al. Haemodynamic definitions and updated clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2019; 53(1):1801913. doi:10.1183/13993003.01913-2018
  5. Humbert M, Kovacs G, Hoeper MM, et al. 2022 ESC/ERS guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2023; 61(1):2200879. doi:10.1183/13993003.00879-2022
  6. Sithamparanathan S, Nair A, Thirugnanasothy L, et al. Survival in portopulmonary hypertension: outcomes of the United Kingdom National Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Registry. J Heart Lung Transplant 2017; 36(7):770–779. doi:10.1016/j.healun.2016.12.014
  7. Hoeper MM, Huscher D, Pittrow D. Incidence and prevalence of pulmonary arterial hypertension in Germany. Int J Cardiol 2016; 203:612–613. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2015.11.001
  8. Humbert M, Sitbon O, Chaouat A, et al. Pulmonary arterial hypertension in France: results from a national registry. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173(9):1023–1030. doi:10.1164/rccm.200510-1668OC
  9. McDonnell PJ, Toye PA, Hutchins GM. Primary pulmonary hypertension and cirrhosis: are they related? Am Rev Respir Dis 1983; 127(4):437–441. doi:10.1164/arrd.1983.127.4.437
  10. Beshay S, Sahay S, Humbert M. Evaluation and management of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Respir Med 2020; 171:106099. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2020.106099
  11. Krowka MJ, Swanson KL, Frantz RP, McGoon MD, Wiesner RH. Portopulmonary hypertension: results from a 10-year screening algorithm. Hepatology 2006; 44(6):1502–1510. doi:10.1002/hep.21431
  12. Moon AM, Singal AG, Tapper EB. Contemporary epidemiology of chronic liver disease and cirrhosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020; 18(12):2650–2666. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2019.07.060
  13. Al-Naamani N, Krowka MJ, Forde KA, et al. Estrogen signaling and portopulmonary hypertension: the Pulmonary Vascular Complications of Liver Disease study (PVCLD2). Hepatology 2021; 73(2):726–737. doi:10.1002/hep.31314
  14. Roberts KE, Fallon MB, Krowka MJ, et al. Genetic risk factors for portopulmonary hypertension in patients with advanced liver disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 179(9):835–842. doi:10.1164/rccm.200809-1472OC
  15. Thomas C, Glinskii V, de Jesus Perez V, Sahay S. Portopulmonary hypertension: from bench to bedside. Front Med (Lausanne) 2020; 7:569413. doi:10.3389/fmed.2020.569413
  16. Soon E, Crosby A, Southwood M, et al. Bone morphogenetic protein receptor type II deficiency and increased inflammatory cytokine production. A gateway to pulmonary arterial hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015; 192(7):859–872. doi:10.1164/rccm.201408-1509OC
  17. Wiest R, Lawson M, Geuking M. Pathological bacterial translocation in liver cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2014; 60(1):197–209. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2013.07.044
  18. Rochon ER, Krowka MJ, Bartolome S, et al. BMP9/10 in pulmonary vascular complications of liver disease [letter]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020; 201(12):1575–1578. doi:10.1164/rccm.201912-2514LE
  19. Nikolic I, Yung LM, Yang P, et al. Bone morphogenetic protein 9 is a mechanistic biomarker of portopulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2019; 199(7):891–902. doi:10.1164/rccm.201807-1236OC
  20. Gurghean AV, Tudor IA. Pulmonary hypertension in patients with hepatic cirrhosis and portal hypertension. An echographic study. Clujul Med 2017; 90(2):161–165. doi:10.15386/cjmed-705
  21. Rich JD, Rich S. Clinical diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 2014; 130(20):1820–1830. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.006971
  22. Qaiser KN, Sahay S, Tonelli AR. Pulmonary hypertension due to high cardiac output. Respir Med 2023; 206:107034. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2022.107034
  23. DuBrock HM, Del Valle KT, Krowka MJ. Mending the Model for End-stage Liver Disease: an in-depth review of the past, present, and future portopulmonary hypertension Model for End-stage Liver Disease exception. Liver Transpl 2022; 28(7):1224–1230. doi:10.1002/lt.26422
  24. Galiè N, Humbert M, Vachiery JL, et al. 2015 ESC/ERS guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: the Joint Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS): endorsed by: Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC), International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT). Eur Heart J 2016; 37(1):67–119. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehv317
  25. AbuHalimeh B, Krowka MJ, Tonelli AR. Treatment barriers in portopulmonary hypertension. Hepatology 2019; 69(1):431–443. doi:10.1002/hep.30197
  26. Lee SS, Moreau R, Cartin-Ceba R, Krowka MJ. Portopulmonary hypertension. In: Lee SS, Moreau R, eds. Cirrhosis: A Practical Guide to Management. West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd; 2015: 212–224.
  27. Sitbon O, Bosch J, Cottreel E, et al. Macitentan for the treatment of portopulmonary hypertension (PORTICO): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 4 trial. Lancet Respir Med 2019; 7(7):594–604. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(19)30091-8
  28. Deroo R, Trépo E, Holvoet T, et al. Vasomodulators and liver transplantation for portopulmonary hypertension: evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatology 2020; 72(5): 1701–1716. doi:10.1002/hep.31164
  29. Humbert M, Sitbon O, Simonneau G. Treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 2004; 351(14):1425–1436. doi:10.1056/NEJMra040291
  30. Ota K, Shijo H, Kokawa H, et al. Effects of nifedipine on hepatic venous pressure gradient and portal vein blood flow in patients with cirrhosis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1995; 10(2):198–204. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.1995.tb01078.x
  31. Savale L, Guimas M, Ebstein N, et al. Portopulmonary hypertension in the current era of pulmonary hypertension management [published correction appears in J Hepatol 2020; 73(5):1293–1294]. J Hepatol 2020; 73(1):130–139. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2020.02.021
  32. Awdish RL, Cajigas HR. Early initiation of prostacyclin in portopulmonary hypertension: 10 years of a transplant center’s experience. Lung 2013; 191(6):593–600. doi:10.1007/s00408-013-9501-5
  33. Ghofrani HA, Galiè N, Grimminger F, et al. Riociguat for the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension. N Engl J Med 2013; 369(4):330–340. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1209655
  34. Ghofrani HA, Grimminger F, Grünig E, et al. Predictors of long-term outcomes in patients treated with riociguat for pulmonary arterial hypertension: data from the PATENT-2 open-label, randomised, long-term extension trial. Lancet Respir Med 2016; 4(5):361–371. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(16)30019-4
  35. Cartin-Ceba R, Halank M, Ghofrani HA, et al. Riociguat treatment for portopulmonary hypertension: a subgroup analysis from the PATENT-1/-2 studies. Pulm Circ 2018; 8(2):2045894018769305. doi:10.1177/2045894018769305
  36. Preston IR, Burger CD, Bartolome S, et al. Ambrisentan in portopulmonary hypertension: a multicenter, open-label trial. J Heart Lung Transplant 2020; 39(5):464–472. doi:10.1016/j.healun.2019.12.008
  37. Aggarwal M, Li M, Bhardwaj A, et al. Predictors of survival in portopulmonary hypertension: a 20-year experience. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2022; 34(4):449–456. doi:10.1097/MEG.0000000000002322
  38. Sahay S, Al Abdi S, Melillo C, et al. Causes and circumstances of death in portopulmonary hypertension. Transplant Direct 2021; 7(7):e710. doi:10.1097/TXD.0000000000001162
  39. Krowka MJ, Miller DP, Barst RJ, et al. Portopulmonary hypertension: a report from the US-based REVEAL Registry. Chest 2012; 141(4):906–915. doi:10.1378/chest.11-0160
  40. Le Pavec JJ, Souza R, Herve P, et al. Portopulmonary hypertension: survival and prognostic factors. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178(6):637–643. doi:10.1164/rccm.200804-613OC
  41. Cajigas HR, Burger CD, Cartin-Ceba R, et al. Portopulmonary hypertension in nontransplanted patients: results of the largest US single-institution registry. Mayo Clin Proc 2022; 97(12):2236–2247. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2022.08.020
  42. Cartin-Ceba R, Burger C, Swanson K, et al. Clinical outcomes after liver transplantation in patients with portopulmonary hypertension. Transplantation 2021; 105(10):2283–2290. doi:10.1097/TP.0000000000003490
  43. Kleb C, Aggarwal M, Tonelli AR, et al. Liver transplant outcomes in patients with postcapillary pulmonary hypertension. Transplant Direct 2022; 8(11):e1372. doi:10.1097/TXD.0000000000001372

Related Articles

Nurses entering information onto computers
November 8, 2024/Digestive/Research
Study Shows SGLT2i Drugs Are Safe for Patients with Cirrhosis

Findings also indicate reduced risk of serious liver events

Liver disease
Diagnosis and Management of Ascites, Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis and Hepatorenal Syndrome

Brief pearls for diagnosis and management of ascites and relevant conditions associated with decompensated cirrhosis

Patient sleeping
August 7, 2024/Pulmonary/Research
Nocturnal Hypoxemia Linked to Muscle Wasting in COPD Patients

Findings show profound muscle loss variance between men and women

Clostridioides difficile bacteria
May 28, 2024/Pulmonary/Research
New Study Points to Feasibility of Breath-Based Diagnostic Test for C. diff

VOC analysis could provide biological insight into risk factors associated with CDI

Man wearing CPAP machine
April 2, 2024/Pulmonary/Research
Treatments for Obstructive Sleep Apnea: CPAP and Beyond

A review of conservative, pressure-based and surgical treatments for OSA

Image of lungs
February 28, 2024/Pulmonary/Research
New Cleveland Clinic-Led Research Highlights Novel Disease Monitoring Technique in Heart Failure

Volatile organic compounds have potential in heart failure diagnostics

opioids
December 6, 2023/Pulmonary/Research
Can Kappa and Alpha-2 Agonist Agents Treat Opioid-Induced Ventilatory Depression Risk While Preserving Analgesic Effects?

Two NIH grants are looking at developing new antidotes against fentanyl overdose

Lab research
November 22, 2023/Pulmonary/Research
Unravelling the Mysteries of Sepsis and Septic Shock

Exploring the responses to medications and other supportive therapies

Ad